Certainty in Descartes Meditations on First Philosophy...

Certainty in Descartes Meditations on First Philosophy Renà © Descartes was the first philosopher to raise the question of how we can claim to know anything about the world with certainty. The idea is not that these doubts are probable, but that their possibility can never be entirely ruled out. If we can never be certain, how can we claim to know anything? The First Meditation of Meditations on First Philosophy, subtitled What can be called into doubt, opens with the Meditator reflecting on the number of falsehoods he has believed during his life and on the subsequent ability of the body to deceive him. Seated alone by the fire, he resolves to demolish former opinions and rebuild his knowledge on more certain grounds. The†¦show more content†¦However, the Meditator realizes that he is often convinced when he is dreaming that he is sensing real objects. He feels certain that he is awake and sitting by the fire, but reflects that often he has dreamed this very sort of thing and been thoroughly convinced by it. On further reflection, he realizes that even simple things can be doubted. Omnipotent God could make even our conception of mathematics false. One might argue that God is supremely good and would not lead Descartes to believe falsely all these things. He supposes that not God, but some evil demon has committed itself to deceiving him so that everything he thinks he knows is false. By doubting everything, he can at least be sure not to be misled into falsehood by this demon. Recalling his previous thoughts in Meditation Two, the Meditator supposes that what he sees does not exist, that his memory is faulty, that he has no senses and no body, and that extension, movement and place are mistaken notions. Perhaps, he remarks, the only certain thing remaining is that there is no certainty. Although this argument often seems logical and fully-developed, Descartes uses this meditation to as inspiration prove that perhaps there is one thing that is absolutely certain in the universe: his existence. The Meditator has conceded that he has no senses and no body, but can he not exist either? He has also noted that the physical world does not exist, which might also seem to imply his non-existence. Yet toShow MoreRelatedDescartes Six Meditations on First Philosophy Essay1347 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout the six meditations on First Philosophy, French philosopher Rene Descartes seeks to find a concrete foundation for the basis of science, one which he states can only include certain and unquestionable beliefs. Anything less concrete, he argues will be exposed to the external world and to opposition by philosophical sceptics. The sense of the Cartesian reform is the imposition of a new method of thinking. Descartes’ method to begin with is reductive, removing all knowledge acquired withoutRead MoreThe Nature Of The Human Mind878 Words   |  4 PagesRene Descartes second meditation is titled, Concerning the Nature of the Human Mind: That it is Better Known than the Body. In his second meditation, Descartes argues that the human mind exists merely by itself without any physical representation in the world. This argument lead to many of his later meditations and allowed him to really build the framework for Western Philosophy. The cogent argument is arguably the most crucial argument, which lead us to our philosophy of the mind. In some respectRead MoreArguments For The Existence Of God1137 Words   |  5 Pagespersonal experience, and some on philosophy. Descartes offered two arguments towards the existence of God: an informal proof in the third meditation and the ontological proof in the fifth me ditation. Descartes believed that with the employment of a rational method of inquiry which applied some of the methods of analytic geometry to the study of philosophy, our ability to attain certainty and validity about our knowledge would be greatly increased. For Descartes to include a second and distinct proofRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy1318 Words   |  6 PagesPhilosophical Questions November 2, 2017 Cogito Ergo Sum Descartes Meditations on First Philosophy and his questioning of our existence in reality is a question which philosophers have tackled throughout time. Cogito ergo sum or I think therefore I am, a phrase brought about by Descartes is the backbone of his whole philosophy of our existence in reality. As long as we are thinking things, we exist. When we look at this approach to our existence we must first deny that any sensory data that we receive is believableRead More Rene Descartes Essay1094 Words   |  5 PagesRene Descartes was a famous French mathematician, scientist and philosopher. He was arguably the first major philosopher in the modern era to make a serious effort to defeat skepticism. His views about knowledge and certainty, as well as his views about the relationship between mind and body have been very influential over the last three centuries. Descartes was born at La Haye (now called Descartes), and educated at the Jesuit College of La Flà ¨che between 1606 and 1614. Descartes later claimedRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy1712 Words   |  7 PagesDescartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy (1641) contains six Meditations. In the first two of these Descartes addresses doubt and certainty. By the end of the second Meditation Descartes establishes the possibility of certainty by concluding that he is a â€Å"thinking thing† and that this is beyond doubt. Having established the possibility of certainty, Descartes attempts to prove the existence of God. The argument he presents in the Third Meditation for the existence of God has been nicknamed theRead MoreDescartes and God Essay820 Words   |  4 PagesDescartes and God Everywhere in this world there are debates on many things. Logic is often employed in order to understand and come to an agreement on these debated topics. One such topic, which is arguably the greatest topic of debate occurring in modern day, is the existence of God. Sure, many people believe in some sort of higher being, but how many of them try and use logic and rational thought to prove the existence of God. Many probably, however we will only look at one such person.Read MoreRene Descartes And Kant1013 Words   |  5 Pageswith many philosophers worth studying, a common theme present amongst Renà © Descartes, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant is the fact that all three philosophers challenged the traditional ways of thinking about philosophy respective to their eras. In certain aspects, all three of these philosophers also grappled with understanding, discovering, and logically explaining the power of the mind to shape whole truths. From Descartes’ foundational work with me thodological doubt to Kant’s contribution to previousRead MoreEssay about Descartes View on the Senses652 Words   |  3 PagesDescartes first meditation included a few arguments that Descartes studied and analyze. The one I choose to analyze was his argument of sense deception. The actually argument is the following: (1) My senses sometimes deceive me. (2) If my senses sometimes deceive me, then they might always deceive me. (3) If my senses might always deceive me, then I cannot be certain about any beliefs acquired through my senses. (4) If I cannot be certain about any beliefs acquired through my senses, then I mustRead MoreRene Descartes s Meditation On First Philosophy802 Words   |  4 PagesRenà © Descartes objective in Meditation on First Philosophy is to construct philosophy as a solid methodical study and discipline alike the sciences. To do so he must first suspend belief in all things doubtful and from their go about verifying the true concepts of the world. In meditation II he verifies that he is a thinking thing and finds that the certainty of the cogito â€Å"I think therefore I am† lies in the distinct perception of what he affirms. From this he generates a general rule of evidence

Qualitative Observation Of A Chemical Reaction Lab Report

Qualitative Observation of a Chemical Reaction Purpose: Carefully observe and interpret a chemical reaction. Apparatus: Equipment- 250mL beaker, 125mL Erlenmeyer flask, cardboard square, chemical scoop, metric ruler, lab countertop, rubber stoppers, safety goggles, lab apron Materials- candle ( 2cm diameter), matchbook, 2 toothpicks, Limewater solution, string, aluminum foil, Cobalt Chloride paper Procedure: Note appearance, odor, and feel of the unlighted candle. Heat the bottom of the candle and secure it to a cardboard square on your lab counter. Light the candle and allow it to burn for several minutes. Note any changes. Briefly describe the burning candle. Blow out the flame and immediately place a lighted match in the â€Å"smoke†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦show more content†¦- During: The wax began dripping down the sides of the candle once the wick was lighted. The flame was blue at the bottom and ombred up to yellow at the top of the flame. The flame was jumpy and not steady. - After: Liquid wax was puddled around the wick of the candle. - Results: When a lighted match was held 2cm away from the unlighted candle in its smoke, the flame would jump from the match to the wick having been carried by the smoke. Test 2 (procedure 4) - Before: There were more wax drips down the sides of the candle. - During: The liquid wax was exposed to the heat of a lighted match. - After: The liquid wax underwent a physical change after being exposed to the heat of the match. - Results: When liquid wax is exposed to the heat of a match, it transforms back into its original solid state. Test 3 (procedure 5) - Before: The area around the wick was all solid wax instead of liquid wax as in previous tests. The wood toothpick was placed in the solid wax around the wick. - During: The toothpick was lighted using a match and began to burn, but not for very long. - After: Only the top of the toothpick was burnt. The candle remains in the same shape as it was at the beginning of the test. - Result: Once the toothpick had been lighted, the flame went out before it hit the body of the toothpick. Only the tip of the toothpick had been exposed to theShow MoreRelatedMatter And Chemical Characteristics Of The Unknown Powders826 Words   |  4 PagesSeptember 23rd, 2014 Matter Qualitative Lab Report Purpose:- The purpose of the lab is to perform series of tests to determine the physical and chemical characteristics of several unknown powders, and then use that information to classify the unknown powders. Hypothesis:- I believe that by testing substances with various chemicals, for example, vinegar, iodine and that will help to find out what the substance is and what is it quality. Materials:- In order to perform this lab, you need:- †¢ LitmusRead MoreLab Report On The Chemical Parts Of A Substance1478 Words   |  6 PagesIntroductory Chemistry 1110 Qualitative Analysis Using Precipitation Reactions Lab reports are due week of September 29 – October 3, 2014. Your lab report must contain the following information: Experimental data may be collected with other students in introductory chemistry labs. However, I understand that sharing information required for a lab report or unknown submission (including but not limited to word processing or spreadsheet files, calculations, graphs, conclusions and additionalRead MoreIdentifying Inorganic Compounds Using Qualitative And Chemical Tests1288 Words   |  6 PagesIdentifying inorganic compounds using qualitative analyses and chemical tests Jessica Vithayathil U84363206 CHM 2045L Section: 033 Aaron Clark October 13, 2016 Introduction Due to climate change during the turn of the 21st century and overall population growth, scientists have noticed greater amounts of negative impact on water sources (Barber, 2011). Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTPs) have been identified as one of the root causes of stress for these water sources (Barber).Read MoreYeast Fermentation Lab Report885 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿ Yeast Fermentation Lab Report SBI4U Chaweewan. Sirakawin Present to Ms.Allinotte November 21. 2014 Introduction: Fermentation is a metabolic pathway that produce ATP molecules under anaerobic conditions (only undergoes glycolysis), NAD+ is used directly in glycolysis to form ATP molecules, which is not as efficient as cellular respiration because only 2ATP molecules are formed during the glycolysis. One type of fermentation is alcohol fermentationRead MoreAnalytical Chemistri Intro1796 Words   |  8 PagesOutlines ï‚â€" ï‚â€" ï‚â€" ï‚â€" ï‚â€" ï‚â€" ï‚â€" ï‚â€" LU1 :Analytical Chemistry Overview LU2: Measurements and Data Treatment LU3: Stoichiometric Calculations LU4: General Concepts of Chemical Equilibrium LU5: Gravimetric Methods LU6: Acid-Base Equilibria LU7: Acid-base titrations LU8: Analytical Separations Course Assessment Laboratory reports (15%) ï‚â€" Assignments (15%) ï‚â€" MidTerm Examination (30%) ï‚â€" Final Examination (40%) ï‚â€" 3 References 1. Christian, G.D. (2003). Analytical Chemistry, 6th edition. NewRead MoreSpring Syllabus2332 Words   |  10 Pages[pic] [pic] Florida AM University Department of Chemistry CHM 1045 Lab Syllabus | COURSE SYLLABUS | |Course Number: CHM 1045L |Course Title: General Chemistry I Laboratory | |Prerequisite(s): Read MoreQualitative Anion Tests Essay1330 Words   |  6 PagesExercise 14: Qualitative Anion Tests PURPOSE: The purpose of this experiment is to identify some commonly occurring anions to study some of the reactions used for their identification. PROCEDURE: You must first determine to which of the three groups the various anions belong. Since no two people observe the same event in exactly the same way it is important to also conduct specific confirmation tests on the known samples of each anion. This information will help identify the anionRead MorePotassium Chlorate1336 Words   |  6 PagesBackground All compounds consist of elements chemically combined in fixed proportions – they obey the Law of Constant Composition. 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Capital structure free essay sample

Capital structure describes how a corporation has organized its capital—how it obtains the financial resources with which it operates its business. Businesses adopt various capital structures to meet both internal needs for capital and external requirements for returns on shareholders investments. As shown on its balance sheet, a companys capitalization is constructed from three basic blocks: Long-term debt. By standard accounting definition, long-term debt includes obligations that are not due to be repaid within the next 12 months. Such debt consists mostly of bonds or similar obligations, including a great variety of notes, capital lease obligations, and mortgage issues. Preferred stock. This represents an equity (ownership) interest in the corporation, but one with claims ahead of the common stock, and normally with no rights to share in the increased worth of a company if it grows. Common stockholders equity. This represents the underlying ownership. On the corporations books, it is made up of: (I) the nominal par or stated value assigned to the shares of outstanding stock; (2) the capital surplus or the amount above par value paid the company whenever it issues stock; and (3) the earned surplus (also called retained earnings), which consists of the portion of earnings a company retains after paying out dividends and similar distributions. Put another way, common stock equity is the net worth after all the liabilities (including long-term debt), as well as any preferred stock, are deducted from the total assets shown on the balance sheet. For investment analysis purposes, security analysts may use the companys market capitalization—the current market price times the number of common shares outstanding—as a measure of common stock equity. They consider this market-based figure a more realistic valuation. CHOOSING DEBT VERSUS EQUITY It should be noted that companies may operate without funded debt or, more frequently, without any preferred stock. By the very nature of corporate structure, however, they must have common stock and the related stockholders equity account—though, when the company fares badly, the equity can be a negative amount. In arranging a companys financial structure, management normally aims for the lowest feasible cost of capital; whereas an investor seeks the greatest possible return. While these desires can conflict, they are not necessarily incompatible, especially with equity investors. The cost of capital can be kept low and the opportunity for return on common stockholders equity can be enhanced through leverage—a high percentage of debt relative to common equity. But increased leverage carries with it increased risk. This is the inescapable trade off both management and investors must factor into their respective decisions. The leverage provided by debt financing is further enhanced because the interest that corporations pay is a tax-deductible expense, whereas dividends to both preferred and common stockholders must be paid with after-tax dollars. Thus, it is argued, the lower net cost of bond interest helps accrue more value for the common. But, of course, increased debt brings with it higher fixed costs that must be paid in good times and bad, and can severely limit a companys flexibility. The Financial Handbook, spells out four problems that tend to increase as leverage escalates: (1) a growing risk of bankruptcy; (2) lack of access to the capital markets during times of tight credit; (3) the need for management to concentrate on finances and raising additional capital at the expense of focusing on operations; (4) higher costs for whatever additional debt and preferred stock capital the company is able to raise. Aside from the unpleasantness involved, it is noted that each of these factors also entails tangible monetary costs. Still, because of its tax advantages and stability relative to equity capital (common stock), some finance theorists have argued that higher proportions of debt capital may be advantageous to corporations. Their advice is not always heeded, however. Although periodically companies use debt to buy back common shares, a practice that can improve stock performance, most large companies rely heavily on equity financing. The elusive optimal capital structure is that which minimizes the total cost of a corporations capital. While complex mathematical formulas abound for devising varying capital structures and projecting potential returns under a vast number of scenarios, there is no proven way to arrive at an optimal structure except, to some extent, by hindsight. In practice, there are no fixed rules on what represents an ideal capitalization. In any case, an appropriate capitalization must depend greatly on the nature of the business, prevailing economic and financial conditions, and sundry other shifting factors. There is a good body of research that suggests companies tend to employ debt under certain circumstances more than others. For example, a survey from the late 1980s reported that CFOs of major companies decided whether to use debt based on the nature and risks of the cash flows associated with the capital investment. Another mid-1990s study produced compatible findings. When diversifying into new lines of business, the study suggested, companies that are moving into related fields tend to use equity capital and those entering unrelated fields tend to use debt. Ownership structure is also an influence. Firms with a high degree of management ownership, for instance, are less likely to carry high levels of debt, as are corporations with significant institutional ownership. Regulated utilities represent a special case. Agencies and organizations acting as consumer advocates regularly argue that utilities should be held to an optimal capitalization standard—optimal invariably meaning a heavy layer of debt so as to permit a higher percentage of profits to flow to the common, thus reducing the need for rate increases. Utility management in its turn warns of the danger of too much debt and the need for a stronger equity cushion—a structure that will require more revenues (i. e. , higher rates) for the utility to earn its authorized rate of return. In earlier days, a debt-free structure was often considered a sign of strength and many industrial companies that were able to finance their growth with an all-common capitalization prided themselves on their clean balance sheet. Especially in the rapid expansion after World War II, however, the vast demand for capital and low interest rates—made even lower thanks to tax deductions—made debt financing increasingly attractive. Not only was the immediate demand on income relatively modest but since the interest requirement remained fixed, all future income growth financed by this debt capital would flow straight through to the common. Benjamin Graham and David Dodd, often considered the fathers of modern security analysis and noted for their advocacy of prudent investing, long ago pointed to the advantages of a sound but not excessive amount of debt in the corporate structure. In confronting the debt-free is best argument, they shrewdly asked how one could advise a conservative investor to buy good-quality bonds if the very act of issuing bonds implied that the company had taken a dangerous and unwise step? Graham and Dodd recommended: In most enterprises, a bond component no more than—[but] not too far below—the amount that careful financial institutions would be ready to lend †¦ would probably be in the interest of the owners. STRATEGIC LEVERAGE The leveraged buyout (LBO) stampede of the 1980s brought a new twist to the capitalization issue. Large corporations with conservative, low-debt capitalizations became especially vulnerable to capture. Corporate raiders with limited financial resources, had the ability to raise huge amounts of noninvestment-grade (junk) debt to swing the deals. The captured companies could then be dismembered and stripped of cash holdings so the raiders could pay down their borrowings; in short, the preys own assets were used to pay for its capture. As a takeover defense, many potential targets began to assume heavy debt themselves, often to finance an internal buyout by its own management. Again, success would often depend on the successful sale of major assets. The raiders make no apology for such actions. As described by Harvard professor Michael C. Jensen, they can purposely leverage the firm so highly (at times with current income insufficient to meet current interest requirements) so the company cannot continue to exist in its old form. But, he argued, this generates benefits. It creates the crisis to motivate cuts in [low-return] expansion programs and the sale of those divisions which are more valuable outside the firm. The problem with this theory, to some observers, is that it assumes any value tucked away by existing management is automatically fair game for distribution to stockholders—including those who move in for just that purpose—and makes no allowance for the companys long-term needs. As applied, the theory also made little distinction between good and bad management, but tended to brand the management of any targeted company as either inept or feathering-its-own-nest or both. Whatever the merits of the opposing arguments, the flood of LBOs brought with it an essentially new type of security—the junk bond, a bond rated as noninvestment grade or speculative. The position of junk bonds in a capital structure, from a legal and accounting standpoint, is clearly that of debt. It is usually subordinated to the claims of many other lenders, but ranks ahead of any equity holders. From the investors standpoint, if the bond portion of the portfolio is intended to represent a relatively safe anchor, with a dependable return on well-protected principal, it is important to stick to investment grade issues. For those willing to assume (and able to recognize) the increased risk, a holding of junk bonds, preferably a well-diversified selection, can be justified as part of the more speculative part of the portfolio.

Supernatural Forces In Macbeth Essays (773 words) -

Supernatural Forces in Macbeth Supernatural Forces in Macbeth In the play "Macbeth," there were many interesting sections which could be concentrated on due to the suspense and the involvement of the supernatural. The use of the supernatural in the witches, the visions, the ghost, and the apparitions is a key element in making the concept of the play work and in making the play interesting. Looking through each Act and Scene of the play, it is noticed that the supernatural is definitely a major factor on the play's style. The use of the supernatural occurs at the beginning of the play, with three witches predicting the fate of Macbeth. This gives the audience a clue to what the future holds for Macbeth. "When the battles lost and won" (Act I, Scene I, l.4) was said by the second witch. It says that every battle is lost by one side and won by another. Macbeth's fate is that he will win the battle, but will lose his time of victory for the battle of his soul. After the prophecies of the witches' revealed the fate of Macbeth, the plan in which to gain power of the throne is brought up. The only way to gain power of the throne was for Macbeth to work his way to the throne, or to murder King Duncan. Murdering the king was an easier plan since the motivation in his dreams urged him on. Lady Macbeth also relied on the supernatural by her soliloquy of calling upon the evil spirits to give her the power to plot the murder of Duncan without any remorse or conscience (Act I, Scene V, ll.42-57). The three sisters are capable of leading people into danger resulting in death, such as the sailor who never slept (Act I, Scene III, ll.1-37). Lady Macbeth has convinced her husband Macbeth to murder King Duncan. On the night they planned to kill Duncan, Macbeth is waiting for Lady Macbeth to ring the signal bell to go up the stairs to Duncan's chamber. He sees the vision of the floating dagger. The interest of the dagger is that it leads Macbeth towards the chamber by the presence of evil of the dagger being covered with blood. Then the bell rings and Macbeth stealthily proceeds up the staircase to Duncan's chamber. Once the murder has been committed, eventually Banquo has his suspicions about Macbeth killing Duncan to have power of the throne. There is constantly more guilt and fear inside Macbeth and his wife that they decide to have Banquo killed. Macbeth and his wife attend a banquet in which a ghost appears. Once the murderer notified Macbeth that the deed was done, he observed the ghost of Banquo sitting in his regular seat. This caused Macbeth to act in a wild manner, making people suspicious of his actions. (Act III, Scene VI, ll.31-120). The use of the supernatural has increased the suspense now that Macbeth is constantly relying on the prophecies of the three witches. Hecate, the Queen of witches is angry with the three sisters for not involving her in their encounters with Macbeth. The witches plan to lead Macbeth to his downfall by making him feel over-confident. (Act III, Scene V, ll.1-35). Further on in the play, Macbeth finds his way to the witches' cave and demands to know what lies ahead for him. The three witches predict what he is going to ask and produce the first apparition which is an armed head. "Macbeth!, Macbeth!, Macbeth!, beware of Macduff; beware thane of Fife. Dismiss me: enough." (Act VI, Scene I, ll.77-78). The first apparition tells Macbeth to beware of Macduff. Then the second apparition appears (a bloody child), and says: "Be bloody, bold, and resolute; laugh to scorn the power of man, for none of woman born shall harm Macbeth." (Act IV, Scene I, ll.85-87). This apparition informs Macbeth that no man born from a woman can harm him. finally, the last apparition appears and is a child crowned, with a tree in his hand. The apparition is saying that he will never be defeated until Great Birnam wood shall come against him to High Dunsinane Hill. "Be lion melted, proud, and take no care who chafes, who frets, or where conspirers are: Macbeth shall never vanquish'd be until Great Birnam wood to High Dunsinane Hill shall come against him." (Act VI, Scene I, ll.98-102). These apparitions convinced Macbeth that this was his fate and became over confident, and lead him to his death. The use of the supernatural in Macbeth results quite well with the respect of the